The Mauryan Empire (325 BC -183 BC)

The Mauryan Empire (325 BC -183 BC)

Chandragupta Maurya

. In 305 BC Chandragupta defeated Seleucus Nikator, who surrendered a vast territory.

. Megasthenese was a Greek ambassador sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya by Seleucus.

. Chandragupta became a Jain and went to Sravanbelgola with Bhadrabahu, where he died by slow starvation (Sale/than).

. Under Chandragupta Maurya, for the first time, the whole of northern India was united.

. Trade flourished, agriculture was regulated, weights and measures were standardized and money came into use.

. Taxation, sanitation and famine relief became the concerns of the State.

Bindusara

. Bindusara extended the kingdom further and conquered the south as far as Mysore.

. Bindusar asked Antiochus I of Syria to send some sweet wine, dried figs, and a Sophist. Antiocus I sent wine and figs but politely replied that Greek philosophers are not for sale.

. Bindusar patronized Ajivikus.

Asoka

 . According to the Buddhist tradition, Asoka usurped the throne alter killing his 99 brothers and spared Tissa, the youngest one. Radhagupta a Minister of Bindusar helped him in fratricidal struggle.

. Under Asoka. the Mauryan Empire reached its climax. For the first time,the whole of the subcontinent, leaving out the extreme south, was under imperial control.

. Asoka (ought the Kalinga war in 261 BC in the 9th years of his coronation.The king was moved by massacre in this war and therefore abandoned the policy of physical occupation in favour of policy of cultural conquest. In oilier words, Bherighosha was replaced by Dhammaghosha.

. Asoka was not an extreme pacifist. He did not pursue the policy of peace for sake of peace under all conditions. Thus he retained Kalinga after its conquest and incorporated it into his empire.

. Asoka sent missionaries to the kingdoms of the Cholas and the Pandyas, and five States ruled by Greek kings. We also know that he sent missionaries to Ceylon and Suvarnabhumi (Burma) and also parts of South East Asia.

Asoka’s Dhamma

. Asoka’s Dhamma cannot be regarded as sectarian faith. Its broad objective was to preserve the social order it ordained that people should obey their parents, pay respect to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks and show mercy to slave and servants.

. He held that if people behaved well they would attain Swarga (heaven). He never said that they would attain Nirvana, which was goal of Buddhist

Teaching.

The empire .

 The empire was divided into a number of provinces. Probably, five. . The northern province, called Uttarapatha had Taxila as its capital . Western province, known as Avantipatha had its capital in Ujjain. . Prachyapatha with its capital Toshali (Kalinga) formed the Eastern province while Dakshinapatha with its capital Surarnagiri was the Southernmost province.. Central province. Magdha, with its capital at Pataliputra, was the headquarters of the entire kingdom.

Arthashastra

Arthashastra, written by Chandragupta Maurya’s Prime Minister Chanakya, primarily delves into the statecraft and administration. The treatise lays down various rules that should be formulated for a ruling monarch. It laid down strategies for a well-planned state economy. The Arthashastra has 15 adhikarnas or books. Of which, the first five deal with tantra or internal administration of the state, eight deal with avapa or its relations with neighboring stales, and the last two are miscellaneous in character. The work is concerned with all the topics that deal with the internal administration and foreign relations.

Army

. The most striking feature of Mauryan administration was maintanence of a huge army.

They also maintained a Navy.

. According to Megasthenes the administration of Army was carried by a board of 30 officers divided into six committees, each committee consisting of 5 members. They are:

(i) Army

(ii) Cavalry

(iii) Elephants

(iv) Chariots

(v) Navy

(vi) Transport

. The state controlled almost all economic activities.

. Tax collected from peasants varied from ¼ to 1/6 of the Produce.

. The state also provided irrigation facilities and charged water-tax.

. Tolls were also levied on commodities brought to town for sale and they were collected at gate.

. The slate enjoyed monopoly in mining, sale of liquor, manufacture of arms etc

Facts about Mauryas

. During Mauryan rule, though there was banking system in India. yet usury was customary and the rate of interest was 15’/’ per annum on borrowing money. In less secure transactions (like sea Voyages etc) the rate of interest could be as high as 60’# per annum.

. During Mauryan period, the punch marked coins (mostly of silver) were the common units of transactions.

. Tamralipti m the Gangetic delta was the most prosperous port on the East Coast of India.

. Megasthenes in his Indies had mentioned 7 castes in Mauryan society. They were philosophers, farmers, soldiers, herdsmen, artisans, magistrates and councilors.

The Mauryan Administration

The King

The Mauryan government was a centralised bureaucracy of which the nucleus was the king.

The Mantri Parishad

The king was assisted by Mantri Parishad, whose members included -

(i) The Yuvaraj,                  the crown prince

The Purohita,                     the chief priest

The Senapati.                    the commander-in-chief of the army a few other ministers.

Important officials

Amatyas                              The Secretaries

Sannidhata                         Chief treasury officer

Samaharta                          The collector general of Revenue

Durgapala                            Governor of fort

Antapala                              Governor of the frontier

Akshapatala                       Accountant General

Vachabhumika                  Officer in charge of the rest houses, groves and wells etc.

Dhamma-                            A new post created by Asoka, empowered with the dual functions of                  mahamatras propagating Dhamma and taking care of the common folk for their material well-being.

Lipikaras                               Scribes

Prativedikas                       Reporters.

Kumaras                              The viceroys in charge of a province. Generally they were of regular though the exceptions were also there. In order to check the growing power of the viceroys the

provincial ministers were empowered sufficiently.

Pradesikas          They were the modern district magistrates and in charge of district. They were to make tours once in every 5 years to inspect the entire administration of the areas under control.

Rajukas                They were the later day Patwaris. They were responsible for surveying and assessing the land. In rural areas they were the judicial officers.

Yukra                     A subordinate revenue officer of the district level. He was responsible for the secretarial work of accounting.

Gopa                     Responsible for accounts.

Sthanika               The lax collecting officer directly under the control of the Pradesikas. The village level officers

Gramika               Head of a village. He was generally elected by the people. He was not a paid servant.

Gramvriddhas   Village elders (To assist the Gramika in his work). Every village had its own Panchayat to settle the disputes.

The municipal administration

Nagaraka                             The officer in charge of the city administration.

Sitaadhyaksha                   Supervised agriculture.

Panyaadhyaksha              Superintendent of commerce.

Samsthadhyaksha           Superintendent of market.

Pauthavadhyaksha          Superintendent of weight and measures.

Navadhyaksha                  Superintendent of Ships.

Sulkadhyaksha                  Collector of tolls.

Akaradhyaksha                                 Superintendent of mines.

Lohadhyaksha                   SuperintendentofIron.

Art & Architecture

. The Mauryas introduced stone masonry on large scale.

. Fragments of stone pillars and slumps indicating the existence of an 80-pillared hall have been discovered at Kumarhar on outskirts of Patna.

. The pillars represent the Masterpiece of Mauryan sculpture. Each pillar is made of single piece of sandstone. only their capitals which are beautiful pieces of sculpture in form of lion or bulls are joined with pillar on the top.

. Single Lion capital at Rampurva and Lauriya Nandangarh.

. Single bull capital at Rampurva.

. Four lion capital at Sarnath and Sanchi.

. A carved elephant at Dhauli and engraved elephant at Kalsi.

. The Mauryan artisans also started the practice of hewing out caves from rocks for monks to live in. the earliest example are Barabar caves in Gaya.

. Stupas were built throughout the empire to enshrine (he relics of Buddha. Of these, the most famous are at Sanchi and Bui hut

The Decline

The Mauryan Empire lasted a little over a century and broke up fitly years after the death of Asoka. Slowly, the various princes of the empire began to break away and set up independent kingdoms. In 185 BC. the Mauryan king was overthrown by Pushyamitra Shunga, an ambitious Commander-in-Chief of armed forces. He started the Shunga dynasty in Magadha. The Mauryan Empire ushered in a dream that was to survive and echo again and again in centuries to come. Some probable causes of

decline of the Mauryan Empire:

1. Brahmanical reaction

2. Financial crisis

3. Oppressive rule

4. Neglect of north-west frontier.

5. Weak successors

6. Pacific policy of Asoka

7. New knowledge in outlying areas-Dissemination of knowledge of manufacturing Iron

Religious Movements

Religious Movements

The period between 7th and 5th century BC was a turning point in the intellectual and spiritual development of the whole world, for it witnessed the emergence of early philosophers of Greece, the great Hebrew poets, Confucius in China and Zoroaster in Persia. It was at this time that Jainism and Buddhism arose in India,each based on a distinctive set of doctrines and each laying down distinctive rules of conduct for attaining salvation

Causes of New Movements

. The Vedic philosophy had lost its original purity.

. The Vedic religion had become very complex and degenerated into superstitions, dogmas, and rituals.

. Supremacy of the Brahmans created unrest in the society and Kshatriya reacted against the Brahmanical domination.

. Introduction of a new agricultural economy in eastern India.

. The desire of Vaishyas to improve their social position with the increase in their economic position due to the growth of trade.

Buddhism

Buddha's Life

. Gautama, the Buddha also known as Siddhartha, Sakyamuni and Tathagata.

. Born in 563 BC (widely accepted), on the vaisakha purnima day at Lumbini, near Kapilvastu, capital of the Sakya republic.

. Left home at the age of 29 and attained Nirvana at the age of 35 at Bodh Gaya.

. Delivered his first sermon at Sarnath.

. He attained Mahaparinirvana at Kusinara in 483 BC.

Buddhist Councils

. The first Council was held in 483 BC at Sattapanni cave near Rajagriha to compile the Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka.

. The second council was held at Vaisali in 383 BC. The monks of Vaisali wanted some change in the rites. Schism into Sthaviravadins and Mahasan-ghikas.

. The third council was held at Pataliputra during the reign of Ashoka. 236 years after  the death of Buddha. It was held under the Presidentship of Moggliputta Tissa to revise the scriptures.

 .The fourth council was held during the reign of Kanishka in Kashmir under the  President ship of Vasumitra and Asvaghosha and resulted in the division of Buddhists into Mahayanists and Hinayanists,

Buddhist Scriptures

. The Vinaya Pitaka:

(a) mainly deals with rules and regulations, which the Buddha  promulgated,

 (b) it describes in detail the gradual development of the Sangha.

 © An account of the life and leaching of the Buddha is also given.

. The Sutra Pitaka:

(a) Consists chiefly of discourses delivered by Buddha himself on different occasions,

 (b) Few discourses delivered by Sariputta, Ananda. Moggalana and others are also included in it.

© It lays down the principles of Buddhism.

. The Abhidhamma Pitaka:

(a)Contains the profound philosophy of the Buddha’s teachings,

 (b) It investigates mind and matter, to help the understanding of things as they truly are.

. The Khandhakas:

contain regulations on the course or life in the monastic order and have two sections - the Mahavagga and the Cullavagga. The thud part - the Parivara is an insignificant composition by a Ceylonese monk.

. Among the non-canonical literature Milindapanho, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa are important. The later two are the great chronicles of Ceylon.

Know The Important Facts

. Asvaghosha—Contemporary of Kanishka. lie was poet, dramatist. musician, scholar and debator.

. Nagarjuna—He was a friend and contemporary of Satavahana king Yajnasri Gautamiputra of Andhra. He propounded the Madhyamika School of Buddhist philosophy popularly known as Sunyavada.

. Asanga and Vasubandhu—Two brothers who flourished in the Punjab region in fourth century AD. Asanga was the most important teacher of the Yogachara or Vijnanavada School founded by his guru, Maitreyanatha. Vasubandhu’s greatest work, Abhidharmakosa is still  considered an important encyclopaedia of Buddhism.

. Buddhaghosha — Who lived in the fifth century AD was a great Pali scholar. The commentaries and the Visuddhimaga written by him are a great achievement in the Post- Tripitaka literature.

. Dinnaga—The last mighty intellectual of the fifth century, is well known as the founder of the Buddhist logic.

. Dharmakirti—lived in the seventh century AD was anther great Buddhist logician. He was a subtle philosophical thinker and dialectician.

Buddhist Philosophy

. Idealism: Two source of valid knowledge:

(a) Perception and (b) Inference.  Doctrineof dependent origination (Pratisamutpada): Central theory of Buddhist Philosophy. It tells us that in the empirical worid dominated by the intellect, everything is relative, conditional. dependent, subject to birth and death and therefore impermanent.  Theory of momentariness {Kshanabhanga or Impermanence): It tells that everything ,in this world is merely a conglomeration of perishable qualities. According to it. Things that can produce effect exist and whatever can not produce effect has no existence.

Life and their Symbols

. Birth:                                   Lotus and Bull

. Great Renunciation:     Horse

. Nirvana:                             Bodhi tree

. First Sermon:                   Dharmachakra or wheel

. Parinirvana or Death:   Stupa

Four Noble Truths

 . The world is full of sorrows.

. Desire is root cause of sorrow.

. If Desire is conquered, all sorrows can be removed. Desire can be removed

by following the eight-fold path.

Eight Fold Path

. Right understanding

. Right speech

. Right livelihood

. Right mindfulness

. Right thought

. Right action

. Right effort

. Right concentration

Three Ratnas

. Buddha

. Dhamma

. Sangha

Sacred Shrines

. Lumbini, Bodh-Gaya. Sarnath and Kusinagar, where the tour principal events of the Buddha’s life, namely, Birth, Enlightenment. First sermon and Mahaparinirvana took place. To these are added tour places Sravasti, Rajgriha. Vaishali and Sankasya—these eight places have all along been considered as the eight holy places (ashtamahasthanas).

. Other centres of Buddhism in Ancient India—Amravati and Nagarjunikonda in Andhra Pradesh; Nalanda in Bihar; Junagadh and Valabhi in Gujarat; Sanchi and Bharhut in MP; Ajanta-Ellora in Maharashtra, Dhaulagiri in Orissa; Kannauj. Kausambi and Mathura in U.P.: and Jagadala and Somapuri in West Bengal.

 . Buddhist architecture developed essentially in three forms, viz.

(a) Stupa (relics of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist monk are preserved)

 (b) Chaitya (prayer hall)

 © Vihara (residence)

 Types of Buddhism

. Hinayana

(a) Its followers believed in the original teachings of Buddha,

(b) They sought individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation.

 (c) They did not believe in idol-worship,

 (d) Hinayana, like Jainism, is a religion without God, Karma taking the place of God.

(e) Nirvana is regarded as the extinction of all.

(f) The oldest school of Hinayana  Buddhism is the Sthaviravada (Theravada in Pali) or the ‘Doctrine of the Elders’, (f) Its Sanskrit counterpart, which is more philosophical is known as Sarvastivada or the doctrine which maintains the existence of all things, physical as well as mental, (g) Gradually, from Sarvastivada or Vaibhasika branched oft another school called Sautantrika, which was more critical in outlook.

. Mahayana:

(a) Its followers believed in the heavenliness of Buddha and sought the salvation of all through the grace and help of Buddha and Bodhisatvas.

(b) Believes in idolworship,

(c) Believes that Nirvana is not a negative cessation of misery but a positive state of bliss,

 (d)Mahayana had two chief philosophical schools: the Madhyamika and the Yogachara.

(e) The former took a line midway between the uncompromising realism of Hinayanism and the idealism of Yogachara. (f) The Yogachara school founded by Maitreyanatha completely rejected the realism of Hinayana and maintained absolute idealism.

. Vajrayana:

(a) Its followers believed that salvation could be best attained by acquiring the magical power, which they called Vajra.

(b) The chief divinities of this new sect were the Taras.

© It became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.

Know The Important Facts

. The Buddha extended the teaching of two elder contemporaries, Alara Kalama, and Udlaka.

. According to Buddhism there is no-self, no God, no soul and no spirit.

. There is very little theological or philosophical speculation involved

. Buddhism is scientific in approach, a search for cause and effect relationships and knowledge of reality, as each individual human being experiences it.

. It is psychological in approach, that is, it begins with human being.

. “If women were not admitted into the monasteries, Buddhism would have continued for a thousand years, but because this admission has been granted, it would last only five hundred years” – Buddha

 Roots of Buddhism in the Past

. The Vedanta

. Sankhya philosophy

. The Upanishads : Ideas about Kerma, soul, rebirth, moksha, ahimsa etc.

Contribution of Buddhism

. The doctrine of Ahimsa—so strongly stressed, devoutly preached and sincerely practiced by the Buddhists. Was incorporated in Hinduism of later days.

. The practice of worshipping personal Gods, making their images and erecting temples in their honour became a part of the later day Hinduism.

. Buddhism proved to be one of the greatest civilising forces, which India gave to the neighbouring countries.

. Buddhism broke the isolation of India and helped in establishment of intimate contacts between India and foreign countries.

Jainism

Life of Mahavira

. Born in 540 BC at Kundagrama near Vaisali.

. Siddhartha was his father: Trisala his mother, Yasoda his wife and Jameli was the daughter.

. Attained Kaivalya at Jrimbhikagrama in eastern India at the age of 42.

. Died at the age of 72 in 468 BC at Pavapuri near Rajagriha.

. He was called Jina or Jitendriya, Nirgrantha and Mahavira.

Way to Nirvana

 (Three Ratnas)

. Right faith (Samyak vishwas)

. Right knowledge (Samyak jnan

. Right conduct (Samyak karma)

The Principles of Jainism as Preached by Mahavira

. Rejected the authority of the Vedas and the Vedic rituals.

. Did not believe in the existence of God.

. Believed in karma and the transmigration of soul.

. Laid great emphasis on equality.

FiveMain Teachings

(i) Non-injury (ahimsa)

(ii) Non-lying (saryai)

(iii) Non-stealing (asateya)

(iv) Non-possession (aparigraha)

(v) Observe continence (Bralmmcharya).

(The first four principles are of Parsavanath and the fifth Bramacharya was included by Mahavira).

Sacred Literature

The sacred literature of the Svetambaras is written in a form of Prakrit called Ardhamagadhi, and may be classified as follows:

(a)The twelve Angas

(b) The twelve Upangas

(c) The ten Parikarnas

(d) The six Chhedasutras

(e) The four Mulasutras.

Jaina Philosophy

. Syadvada: All our judgements are necessarily relative, conditional and limited. According ‘ to Syadvada (the theory of may be) seven modes of predication (saptabhangi) are possible. Absolute affirmation and absolute negation both are wrong. All judgements are conditional.

. Anekantavada: The Jaina metaphysics is a realistic and relativistic pluralism. It is called Anekantavada or the doctrine of the ‘manyness of reality’. Matter (Pudgala) and Spirit (Jiva) are regarded as separate and independent realities.

Spread of Jainism

Jainism received patronage from the kings of the time, including Chandragupta Maurya. In the south, royal dynasties such as the Gangas, Kadambas. Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas patronized Jainism. In.Gujarat, patronage came from wealthy merchants. The concrete expression of Jainism’s religious zeal is seen all over the country in works of art and architecture.

The 57-foot high statue of Gomateshvara at Sravanabelagola in Mysore, erected in 983 or 984 AD is a marvel of its kind. The temples at Mount Abu and those at Palithana in Gujarat and Moodabidri and Karkala in the south make a rich contribution to the Indian heritage.

Jaina Councils

By the end of fourth century BC, there was a serious famine in the Ganges valley leading to a great exodus of many Jaina monks to the Deccan and South India (Sravana Belgola) along with Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya. They returned to the Gangetic valley after 12 years. The leader of the group, which stayed back at Magadha was Sthulabahu. The changes that took place in the code of conduct of the followers of Sthulabahu led to the division of the Jainas into Digambaras (sky-clad or naked) and Svetambaras (white-clad).

. First Council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of the third century BC and resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvas.

. Second Council was held at Valabhi in the 5th century AD under the leadership of Devaradhi Kshamasramana and resulted in final compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.

Invasion of Alexander

Alexander crossed the Indus in 326 BC. After defeating the fierce tribes of the north west, he encountered two powerful kings,Ambhi and Porus. Ambhi. the king of Taxila, sent a mission to Alexander. offering to help him. if his own kingdom was spared.Porus, however, decided tooppose the Macedonian and the battle of Hydaspes (Ravi) was fought on the banks of the river Jhelum.Greek sources mention that Porus was defeated but was restored to his dominion as a vassal of Alexander. Alexander wanted to continue his advance but his soldiers mutinied and refused to go beyond river Hyphasis (Beas) and he had to retreat. Alexander died in Babylonia in 323 BC. After his death, most of the Macedonians returned home by 31b BC. Though Alexander’s stay in India was brief; it was an important influence. By curbing the fierce tribes who inhabited the hills and passes of North-west India, he paved the way for the rise of a united empire under the Mauryas. Alexander’s campaign opened up and reinforced a number of trade routes between North-Western India. via Afghanistan and Iran to Asia Minor and to the ports along the eastern Mediterranean.

The rise of the Magadha Kingdom (600 to 300 BC)

The rise of the Magadha Kingdom (600 to 300 BC)

PGW and NBPW

Painted Grey Ware (PGW) (1000-700 BC) was finely made of well-levigated clay on a wheel. It is typically grey in color, thin in section and painted with black or red geometric patterns. The limited range of shapes includes a flat-based convex-sided dish, a small hemispherical bowl, medium and large flat-based straight-sided bowls and a vase (lota) with a straight-sided body, sharp carination at the shoulder and a straight neck. PGW represents the deluxe ware in a mixed ceramic assemblage of various fabrics and manufacture. These ceramic assemblages have been found in the Ghaggar and Indo-Gangetic regions and belong to the Early Iron Age in India.The appearance of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) (600- 200 BC) marked the beginning of the second phase of urbanisation in India. This was a very glossy and shin) type of pottery made of very tine and hard fabric. It is technically the finest Pottery of the time, with a brilliantly burnished dressing almost of the quality of a quality of a glaze in colour from jet black to a deep grey or metallic blue and iron. Shreds of NBPW have been found from the Gangetic plains lo the northern Deccan.

 The Mahajanapadas

About 6th century BC, iron implements began to be used widely. As iron implements helped clear the dense forests of the Gangetic plains, civilization expanded eastwards. The new agricultural tools and implements improved the knowledge of cultivation.This helped in the production of surplus food grains, which could be collected by the Kings to meet their military and administrative needs. Establishment of an agrarian economy enabled the people to lead a settled life, to stick to their land, and also to expand at the cost of the neighbouring virgin areas. Around this time, sixteen Mahajanapadas or kingdoms rose to pre-imminence in India. According to Anguttara Nikaya, they were –

Kashi. Kosala, Anga. Magadha, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kamboja. These Mahajana padas were either monarchical or republican in character. The Mahajanapadas of Anga, Kashi,Kosala, Chedi, Vatsa, Matsya, Shursen, Ashmak, Avanti, Gandhar and Magadha were ruled by kings or monarchs. The kings in these states had the supreme authority. The Mahajanapadas of Vrijji, Malla, Kuru. Panchal and Kamboj were republican states and so were other smaller states like Lichhavi, Shakya, Koliya, Bhagga and Moriya. These repub-lican states had a Ganaparishad or an Assembly of senior and responsible citizens. This Gana-parishad had the supreme authority in the state.

Mahajanapadas                                                Capitals  

I. Gandhara                                        Taxila

2. Matsya                                            Virat Nagari

3. Kamboja                                         Rajput

4. Vajjis                                                Vaishali

5. Asmaka                                           Potna

6. Anga                                                                 Champa

7. Vatsa                                                Kaushambi                         

 8. Kashi                                                Banaras

9. Avanti                                              Ujjain

10. Kosala                                            Sravasti

11. Shurasena                                    Mathura

 12. Magadha                                     Girivraja

13. Chedi                                             Shuktimati

14. Panchala                                       Ahichhatra

15. Malla                                              Kushinara (North).

16. Kurus                                             Hastinapur Kampilya (South)

All the administrative decisions were taken by this Parishad.Again the republic were basically of 2 types:

(a) the republics comprising a single tribe like those of the Sakyas, the Kollis and the Mallas.

(b) the republics comprising a number of tribes or the republics of confederacy like the Vrijjis.

Magadhan Ascendancy Of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti were more powerful. They fought amongst themselves for political pre-eminence for about a hundred years. Ultimately, Magadha, under the leadership of Bimbisar’a(542 BC - 493 BC) and Ajatshatru (493 BC - 461 BC) emerged victorious. The victory of Magadha was a victory for the monarchical system, which was now firmly established in the Ganges plain.

Magadhan ascendancy began with Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty. He married the princesses of Kosala, Vaishali and Madia, which helped him in his expansionist policy. His one and only conquest was that of Anga. He also gained a part of Kashi as (he dowry in his marriage with the sister of King Prasenajit of Kosala. Bimbisara was murdered by his own son. Ajatasatru (492-460 BC). He defeated Prasenajit, mar-ried his daughter, and annexed Kashi. Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin (460-444 BC), who founded the new capital at Pataliputra.

The Haryanka dynasty was succeeded by the Sisunaga dynasty, which destroyed the power of Avanti and incorporated it in the Magadhan empire. Thus, the 100-year-old rivalry between Avanti and Magadha came to an end.

The Sisunagas were succeeded by the Nandas. Who annexed Kalinga to the empire. Mahapadma Nanda was the most important king of his dynasty. The Nandas are said to have checked Alexander’s army from advancing towards Magadha. Their rule was supplanted by that of the Mauryas,

The Sangam Age

The Sangam Age

Three Early Kingdoms

 The Pandayas (Emblem - Fish)

 The Pandyas were first mentioned by Megasthanese. who said that then kingdom was famous for pearls.

The Pandyan territory included modern districts of Tirnelvelli. Ramanad and Madurai in Tami Nadu it had its capital at Madurai. Situated on the banks of Vaigai river.

The Pandya king Profited from trade with Roman Empire and sent emissaries to Roman emperor Augustus and Trojan The Pandyas find mention in the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The earliest known Pandyan ruler was Mudukudumi, who ruled from Madurai. He accused Kovalan of theft. As a result, the city of Madurai was laid under a curse by Kannagi (Kovalan’s wile).

The Cholas (Emblem - Tiger)

The Chola kingdom called as Cholamandulam was situated to the north-east of Pandya kingdom between Pennar and Vellar rivers.

The Chola kingdom corresponded to modern Tanjore and Tiruchirapalli districts.

Its inland capital was Uraiyaur a place famous for cotton trade. One of the main sources of wealth for Cholas was trade in cotton cloth.

Puhar identical with Kaveripattanam was the main port of Cholas and served as alternative capital of Cholas.

The earliest know Chola king was Elara who in 2nd century B C conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it for nearly 53 years.

Their greatest king was Karikala (man with charred leg) who founded Puhar and constructed 160 km of embankment along die Kaveri River.

They maintained an efficient navy. The Cholas were wiped out in the attack of Pallavas from North.

The Cheras (Emblem - Bow)

The Chera country occupied the portion of both Kerala and Tamil Nadu

The capital of Cheras was Vanjji.

It main ports were Muzris and Tondi.

The Romans set up two regiment at Muzris (identical with Cranganore) in Chera country. The also built a temple of Augustus at Muzris.

One of the earliest and better known among Chera rulers was Udiyangeral It is said that he led both the armies of Kurukshetra war and so earned the title Udiyangeral  

The greatest of Chera king however was Senguttuvan of Red Chera. It is said that he invaded north and even crossed the Ganga

He was also the found?! of the famous Pattini cull related to worship of goddess of chastity - Kannagi.

Sangam Administration

The king was the center of administration. He was called Ko, Mannam, Vendan Korravan or Iraivan, Avai was the court of crowned monarch.

Officials

Amaichhar                          ministers

Purohitar                             Purohits

Dutar                                      Envoys

Senapatiyar                        Senapati

Orar                                       Spies.

The kingdom was divided into mandalam, nadu (province), ur (town), sirur (small village), perur (big village).

Revenue administration

Karai                      Land Tax

Irai                          Tribute paid by feudatories and booty collected in war.

Ulgu                       Customs duties.

Iravn                      Extra demand or forced gift.

Variyam               A well known unit of territory yielding tax.

Variyar                  Tax collector

 Sangam Literature

Sangam was a college or assembly of Tamil poets held probably under royal patronage of Pandyan kings in Madurai. According to tradition. the assembly lasted for 9990 years and was attended by 8.598 poets and 197 Pandyan kings.

. The first Sangam was attended by Gods and legendary sages and all its works have perished.

. Of the second Sangam. the only surviving work is Tolkappiyam, an early work on Tamil grammar written by Tolkapiyyar.

. The Sangam literature can roughly) be divided into two groups narrative and didactic.

. The narrative texts are called Melkannaku or eighteen major works consisting of eight anthologies (Ettutogai) and ten idylls (Pattupattu).

. The didactic works are called Kilkannaku or eighteen minor works consisting of Tirukural and Naladiyar

The Epics

. Silappadikaram (The Jewelled Anklet) - Written by Mango Adigal. it deals with the story of Kovalam and Madhavi of Kaveripattinam.

. Manimekalai - Written by Sattnar. deals with the adventuresof Manimekalai. daughter born of Kovalan and Madhavi.

Later Vedic Age (1000 BC-600 BC)

Later Vedic Age (1000 BC-600 BC)         

 During the Later Vedic Age the Aryans thoroughly subdued the fertile plains watered by Yamuna, Ganges and Sadanira. They crossed the Vindhyas and settled in the Deccan, to the north of Godavari.

Political Organisation

. During the Later Vedic Age popular assemblies lost much of their importance and royal power increased at their cost. In other words, chiefdom gave way to kingdom. Formation of large kingdoms made the king more powerful. For all practical purposes, kingship became

hereditary.

. The Vidhata completely disappeared. Sabha and Samiti continued to hold ground, but their character changed and they were no more representative of the will of the majority.

. Women were no longer permitted to attend the assemblies. which came to be dominated by nobles and Brahamanas.

. The term rashtra indicating ‘territory’ first appealed in this period.

Gotra

. The institution of Gotra appeared in the Later Vedic Age.

. Literally meaning cowpen, Gotra signified descent from a common ancestor.

. The Gotra has been regarded as a mechanism for widening the socio political ties,as new relationships were forged between hitherto unrelated people.

. People began to practice Gotra exogamy. In other words, marriage between persons belonging to the same Gotra was prohibited.

Regions and Kings

Eastern King                                       Samrat

Western King                                    Suvrat

Northern King                                   Viral

Southern king                                    Bhoja

King of middle country .                Raja

Pottery

Various types of pottery known:

(a) Black and Red ware

(b) Black Slipped ware

© Plain Grey ware

(d) Red ware

. Red ware was most popular.

. However, the most distinctive type of pottery was Painted Grey Ware. Aranyakas

. There were some sages dwelling in the forests who explained the Vedic scriptures to their pupils in the form of Aranyakas (Aranyaka means belonging to the forest) and they came to be known as forest texts”.

. They explain metaphysics and symbolism of sacrifice.

. They are the forest books and were taught in the forests due to their magical powers.

. They form the concluding part of Brahmanas.

Brahmanas

 The Brahmanas are the prose commentaries on various Vedic hymns. They explain the Vedas in an orthodox way. They explain the hidden meaning behind the hymns They are ritualistic by nature They are expressive of the cause hetu). etymology (nirvachana), censure ninda). dount (samshaya) and injunction (vidhi).

Social Organisation

Society in the Later Vedic Age came became increasingly complex and came to be divided into four Varnas - Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras.

Brahamanas: The growing cult of sacrifice enormously added to the power of Brahmanas, who performed various rituals and sacrifices for their clients. In the beginning, they were merely one of the sixteen classes of priests, but later on they overshadowed others.

Kshatriyas: They constituted the warrior class. Majority of the rulers belonged to this class.

Vaisyas: They were the agriculturists, cattle-rearers, traders, artisans and metal workers, which formed the bulk of population. In some texts, the Kshatriyas are represented as living on the tributes collected from the Vaisyas.

Sudras: They were the lowest in social hierarchy and were meant to serve the upper three varnas.

. The upper three varnas were known as the Dvijas (twice born).

. The upper three varnas were entitledto ‘upanayana’ or investiture with the sacred thread.

. Education began with upanayana ceremony. Sometimes the girls were also initiated. The age of panayana was 8 years for Brahamana. 11 for Kshatriya, and 12 for Vaisyas.

. Certain sections of artisans such as Rathakara or chariot-maker enjoyed high status and were entitled to the sacred thread ceremony.

. In Later vedic Age, polygamy was prevalent and there were instances of child-marriage.

. The term Nagara appears for the first time in the Later Vedic Age, showing faint beginnings of town life.

Vedic Literature

. The word Veda is derived from the Sanskrit word Veda meaning, to know or knowledge par excellence.

. Vedic texts are divided between Sruti (based on hearing), which is distinct from  Smriti (based on memory).

. Four Vedas and their Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads form a class of literature known as Sruti.

 Rig Veda

. It is divided into 10 Books or Mandalas. Books II to VII are considered the oldest. Book I, VIII and X seem to be later additions.

. A collection of 1028 hymns of a number of priestly families.

. Written between 1700-1500 B.C. when Aryans were still in Punjab.

. Books II to VII are earliest and are also called as family books. They are attributed to Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vasudeva. Am. Bhardwaj, Vashishtha. Kanva and Angiras.

. The IX Mandala is dedicated exclusively to Soma

. The X Mandala contains the famous Purushsukta hymn that explains the origin of four Varnas.

 Yajur Veda

. A ritualistic Veda.

. It is divided into Shukla Yajurveda and Krishna Yajurveda.

. Atharvaveda mentions beliefs and practices of non-Aryans.

. In Atharvaveda, Sabha and Samiti are described as uterine sisters – the two daughters of Prajapati.

. Written in prose, it deals with procedure for performance of sacrifices and contains rituals as well as hymns.

 Sama Veda

. Sam Veda derives its roots from Saman. which means a melody.

. A collection of melodies.

. A collection of 1603 hymns. Except 99, all others were derived from Rig Veda.

Atharva Veda

. A collection of 711 hymns, it is divided into 20 Kandas.

. It is the latest Veda.

. Atharva Veda is a book of magical formula.

. It contains charms and spells to ward-off evil and disease.

. Its content throws light on the practices of non-Aryans.

The Upanishads

. The term Upanishada indicates knowledge acquired by sitting close to the teacher. They consisted of discussions on several problems such as the creation of the universe, the nature of God. the origin of mankind etc. They are anti-ritualistic and define the doctrine of Karma (Action), Atman (Soul) and Gad (Brahma).

. They are spiritual and philosophical in nature.

. They are called the Vedanta or the end of Vedas. They advocate J nana Marga and are anti-ritualistic in nature.

. There are 108 Upanishads. Generally, the period from 800 to 500 BC is known as the period of upanishads.

. The Aitareya and Kaushitaki Upanishads belong to Rig Veda.

. Chhandogya and Kena Upanishad belong to Sama Veda. Taittiriya. Katha and

Svetasvatara Upanishad belong to the Krishna Yajur Veda.

. Brihadaranyaka and Isa belong to the Shukla Yajur Veda.

. Prasna. Mundaka and Mundukya belong to the Atharva Veda.

The Upanishads

. The term Upanishada indicates knowledge acquired by sitting close to the teacher. They consisted of discussions on several problems such as the creation of the universe, the nature of God. the origin of mankind etc. They are anti-ritualistic and define the doctrine of Karma (Action), Atman (Soul) and Gad (Brahma).

. They are spiritual and philosophical in nature.

. They are called the Vedanta or the end of Vedas. They advocate J nana Marga and are anti-ritualistic in nature.

. There are 108 Upanishads. Generally, the period from 800 to 500 BC is known

as the period of Upanishads.

. The Aitareya and Kaushitaki Upanishads belong to Rig Veda.

. Chhandogya and Kena Upanishad belong to Sama Veda. Taittiriya. Katha and Svetasvatara Upanishad belong to the Krishna Yajur Veda.

. Brihadaranyaka and Isa belong to the Shukla Yajur Veda.

. Prasna. Mundaka and Mundukya belong to the Atharva Veda.

Ashramas

. The ashrama system is found mentioned for the first time in the Aitareya Brahman a.

. Meant mainly for regulating the life of the male members of the higher castes, they consisted of four stages: (a) Brahmacharin or student life; (b) Grihastha or life of the householder; © Vanaprastha or partial retirement and Sanyasin or complete retirement (ascetic life).

. Full recognition of the fourth stage was done only in the post-Vedic period.

Kalpa Sutras

 These are the treatises dealing with Vedic rituals on one hand, and with customary law on the other They are written in a laboriously compressed style, sometimes approaching the structure of algebraic formulas, unintelligible without the help of authoritative commentaries. With a view to conveying to the future generations the ancient and contemporary literature, the Aryan sages invented a special concise method called the Sutra style. Thus the massive Vedic texts were condensed into short, terse formulae, which could be easily remembered and transmitted orally - from father to son or from Guru to Shisya. Most of the Vedic literature was handed down orally in this manner.

The Sutra literature is divided into three classes: (a) Srauta Sutras - dealing with large public sacrifices. (b) Griha Sutras: dealing with rituals connected with birth, naming, marriage etc. © Dharma Sutras - explain social and local customs. which later on became the basis of Mann Smriti. Dharma-Shastras Dharma-Shastras are the later Vedic Age or Epic Age treatises on ethical and social philosophy. They deal systematically with the proper conduct of life and describe social, ethical and religious obligations. The Dharma-Shastras are, ill fact, another name for Smritis, which are the law books, written in the sloka metre. The chief among them are the Manav Dharma Shastra, the Vishnu Dharma Shastra. the Yajnavalkya Smriti. and the Narad Smriti. Manav Dharma Shastra or Mann Smriti is the oldest and the most famous. Its author Manu is supposed to be the first king and the first law-giver. Later on, some minor Smritis and commentaries like the Mitakshara were compiled.

These books are not merely accounts of civil and criminal laws of the time but they also cover all aspects of the daily life of the individual. They throw considerable light on the social and political life of the age -the caste system, Ashramas of life, economic conditions as also state of professions, arts and crafts, architecture and the working of administration.

Vedangas

In order to understand the Vedic Literature, it was necessary to learn-Vedangas or the limbs of Vedas. These are treatises on science and arts.

They are

a. Shiksha (Phonetics)

b. Kalpa (Ritual)

c. Vyakarana (Grammar)

d. Chhand (Metrics)

e. Nirukta (Etymology)

I. Jyotisha (Astronomy)

. Yaska’s Nirukta (5th century BC) is the oldest Indian linguistic text.

. Panini wrote Ashtadhyayi (4lhCentury BC) on Vyakaran,

Upvedas

There were four Upvedas-

Ayurveda                            dealing with medicine

Dhanurveda                       dealing with the art of the warfare

Gandharvaveda                dealing with music

Shilpaveda                          dealing with art and Literature

Epics

. Mahabharata is older compared to Ramayana and possibly reflects the state of affairs from 10th Century BC to 4th Century . AD.

. Originally Mahabharata consisted of 8800 verses and was called Jayasamhita’. These were raised to 24000 and came to be known as Bharata. The final compilation brought the number of verses to 100,000 and came to be known as Mahabharata.

. The Ramayana of Valmiki originally consisted of 6000 verses which were raised to 12000 and finally to 24.000

. Composition of Ramayana started in 5th century BC. It passed through several stages and attained its present form as late as 12th century AD.

Six System of Philosophy

 1 Nyaya (Analysis)                                          Gautam

2 Vaisesika (Atomic Characteristic)           Kanada

3 Sankhya (Enumeration)                             Kapil

4 Yoga (Application)                                        Patanjali

5. Purva Mimansa (Enquiry)                        Jaimini

6 Uttar Mimansa (Vedanta)                         Vyasa

Later Vedic Religion

. Towards the end of the Vedic Age, a section of society began to resent priestly domination. The Upanishads criticised the cult of rituals and sacrifices and laid stress on Right Belief and Right Knowledge.

. They emphasised that knowledge of self (Atman) should be acquired and relation of Atman with Brahma (God) should be properly understood.

. Deeds of one life affected the next. This gave the theory of Karma.

Puranas

The strikingly varied nature of the contents of Puranas seems to be the result of diverse materials: tales, anecdotes, songs and ballads, traditional lore etc. These include mythology, cosmogony, various legends, genealogical accounts, folk beliefs, law codes and miscellaneous topics. The Puranic literature is thus a unique outcome of the ever-continuing synthesis of various socio-economic formations operative between the 5th century BC and the 12th century AD. Every addition in the Puranic literature brought in its train numerous new deities with images and temples, pilgrimages and vows, sects etc. The change in the mode of worship (from sacrifice to worship of idols), visual appeal of the denies as against the worship of ideas, the fact of idol worship being more satisfying than yajna or sacrifice, revulsion to the violence and bloodshed involved in animal sacrifices-all these explain the socio-religiouseconomic transformations taking place in the Aryan society. The Puranas may be regarded as a unique record of the outcome of continual clash and friction, readjustment and mobilization, conservatism and the accommodating spirit of the Indian society.keen to come to terms with its evolving ethos.