Religious Movements

Religious Movements

The period between 7th and 5th century BC was a turning point in the intellectual and spiritual development of the whole world, for it witnessed the emergence of early philosophers of Greece, the great Hebrew poets, Confucius in China and Zoroaster in Persia. It was at this time that Jainism and Buddhism arose in India,each based on a distinctive set of doctrines and each laying down distinctive rules of conduct for attaining salvation

Causes of New Movements

. The Vedic philosophy had lost its original purity.

. The Vedic religion had become very complex and degenerated into superstitions, dogmas, and rituals.

. Supremacy of the Brahmans created unrest in the society and Kshatriya reacted against the Brahmanical domination.

. Introduction of a new agricultural economy in eastern India.

. The desire of Vaishyas to improve their social position with the increase in their economic position due to the growth of trade.

Buddhism

Buddha's Life

. Gautama, the Buddha also known as Siddhartha, Sakyamuni and Tathagata.

. Born in 563 BC (widely accepted), on the vaisakha purnima day at Lumbini, near Kapilvastu, capital of the Sakya republic.

. Left home at the age of 29 and attained Nirvana at the age of 35 at Bodh Gaya.

. Delivered his first sermon at Sarnath.

. He attained Mahaparinirvana at Kusinara in 483 BC.

Buddhist Councils

. The first Council was held in 483 BC at Sattapanni cave near Rajagriha to compile the Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka.

. The second council was held at Vaisali in 383 BC. The monks of Vaisali wanted some change in the rites. Schism into Sthaviravadins and Mahasan-ghikas.

. The third council was held at Pataliputra during the reign of Ashoka. 236 years after  the death of Buddha. It was held under the Presidentship of Moggliputta Tissa to revise the scriptures.

 .The fourth council was held during the reign of Kanishka in Kashmir under the  President ship of Vasumitra and Asvaghosha and resulted in the division of Buddhists into Mahayanists and Hinayanists,

Buddhist Scriptures

. The Vinaya Pitaka:

(a) mainly deals with rules and regulations, which the Buddha  promulgated,

 (b) it describes in detail the gradual development of the Sangha.

 © An account of the life and leaching of the Buddha is also given.

. The Sutra Pitaka:

(a) Consists chiefly of discourses delivered by Buddha himself on different occasions,

 (b) Few discourses delivered by Sariputta, Ananda. Moggalana and others are also included in it.

© It lays down the principles of Buddhism.

. The Abhidhamma Pitaka:

(a)Contains the profound philosophy of the Buddha’s teachings,

 (b) It investigates mind and matter, to help the understanding of things as they truly are.

. The Khandhakas:

contain regulations on the course or life in the monastic order and have two sections - the Mahavagga and the Cullavagga. The thud part - the Parivara is an insignificant composition by a Ceylonese monk.

. Among the non-canonical literature Milindapanho, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa are important. The later two are the great chronicles of Ceylon.

Know The Important Facts

. Asvaghosha—Contemporary of Kanishka. lie was poet, dramatist. musician, scholar and debator.

. Nagarjuna—He was a friend and contemporary of Satavahana king Yajnasri Gautamiputra of Andhra. He propounded the Madhyamika School of Buddhist philosophy popularly known as Sunyavada.

. Asanga and Vasubandhu—Two brothers who flourished in the Punjab region in fourth century AD. Asanga was the most important teacher of the Yogachara or Vijnanavada School founded by his guru, Maitreyanatha. Vasubandhu’s greatest work, Abhidharmakosa is still  considered an important encyclopaedia of Buddhism.

. Buddhaghosha — Who lived in the fifth century AD was a great Pali scholar. The commentaries and the Visuddhimaga written by him are a great achievement in the Post- Tripitaka literature.

. Dinnaga—The last mighty intellectual of the fifth century, is well known as the founder of the Buddhist logic.

. Dharmakirti—lived in the seventh century AD was anther great Buddhist logician. He was a subtle philosophical thinker and dialectician.

Buddhist Philosophy

. Idealism: Two source of valid knowledge:

(a) Perception and (b) Inference.  Doctrineof dependent origination (Pratisamutpada): Central theory of Buddhist Philosophy. It tells us that in the empirical worid dominated by the intellect, everything is relative, conditional. dependent, subject to birth and death and therefore impermanent.  Theory of momentariness {Kshanabhanga or Impermanence): It tells that everything ,in this world is merely a conglomeration of perishable qualities. According to it. Things that can produce effect exist and whatever can not produce effect has no existence.

Life and their Symbols

. Birth:                                   Lotus and Bull

. Great Renunciation:     Horse

. Nirvana:                             Bodhi tree

. First Sermon:                   Dharmachakra or wheel

. Parinirvana or Death:   Stupa

Four Noble Truths

 . The world is full of sorrows.

. Desire is root cause of sorrow.

. If Desire is conquered, all sorrows can be removed. Desire can be removed

by following the eight-fold path.

Eight Fold Path

. Right understanding

. Right speech

. Right livelihood

. Right mindfulness

. Right thought

. Right action

. Right effort

. Right concentration

Three Ratnas

. Buddha

. Dhamma

. Sangha

Sacred Shrines

. Lumbini, Bodh-Gaya. Sarnath and Kusinagar, where the tour principal events of the Buddha’s life, namely, Birth, Enlightenment. First sermon and Mahaparinirvana took place. To these are added tour places Sravasti, Rajgriha. Vaishali and Sankasya—these eight places have all along been considered as the eight holy places (ashtamahasthanas).

. Other centres of Buddhism in Ancient India—Amravati and Nagarjunikonda in Andhra Pradesh; Nalanda in Bihar; Junagadh and Valabhi in Gujarat; Sanchi and Bharhut in MP; Ajanta-Ellora in Maharashtra, Dhaulagiri in Orissa; Kannauj. Kausambi and Mathura in U.P.: and Jagadala and Somapuri in West Bengal.

 . Buddhist architecture developed essentially in three forms, viz.

(a) Stupa (relics of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist monk are preserved)

 (b) Chaitya (prayer hall)

 © Vihara (residence)

 Types of Buddhism

. Hinayana

(a) Its followers believed in the original teachings of Buddha,

(b) They sought individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation.

 (c) They did not believe in idol-worship,

 (d) Hinayana, like Jainism, is a religion without God, Karma taking the place of God.

(e) Nirvana is regarded as the extinction of all.

(f) The oldest school of Hinayana  Buddhism is the Sthaviravada (Theravada in Pali) or the ‘Doctrine of the Elders’, (f) Its Sanskrit counterpart, which is more philosophical is known as Sarvastivada or the doctrine which maintains the existence of all things, physical as well as mental, (g) Gradually, from Sarvastivada or Vaibhasika branched oft another school called Sautantrika, which was more critical in outlook.

. Mahayana:

(a) Its followers believed in the heavenliness of Buddha and sought the salvation of all through the grace and help of Buddha and Bodhisatvas.

(b) Believes in idolworship,

(c) Believes that Nirvana is not a negative cessation of misery but a positive state of bliss,

 (d)Mahayana had two chief philosophical schools: the Madhyamika and the Yogachara.

(e) The former took a line midway between the uncompromising realism of Hinayanism and the idealism of Yogachara. (f) The Yogachara school founded by Maitreyanatha completely rejected the realism of Hinayana and maintained absolute idealism.

. Vajrayana:

(a) Its followers believed that salvation could be best attained by acquiring the magical power, which they called Vajra.

(b) The chief divinities of this new sect were the Taras.

© It became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.

Know The Important Facts

. The Buddha extended the teaching of two elder contemporaries, Alara Kalama, and Udlaka.

. According to Buddhism there is no-self, no God, no soul and no spirit.

. There is very little theological or philosophical speculation involved

. Buddhism is scientific in approach, a search for cause and effect relationships and knowledge of reality, as each individual human being experiences it.

. It is psychological in approach, that is, it begins with human being.

. “If women were not admitted into the monasteries, Buddhism would have continued for a thousand years, but because this admission has been granted, it would last only five hundred years” – Buddha

 Roots of Buddhism in the Past

. The Vedanta

. Sankhya philosophy

. The Upanishads : Ideas about Kerma, soul, rebirth, moksha, ahimsa etc.

Contribution of Buddhism

. The doctrine of Ahimsa—so strongly stressed, devoutly preached and sincerely practiced by the Buddhists. Was incorporated in Hinduism of later days.

. The practice of worshipping personal Gods, making their images and erecting temples in their honour became a part of the later day Hinduism.

. Buddhism proved to be one of the greatest civilising forces, which India gave to the neighbouring countries.

. Buddhism broke the isolation of India and helped in establishment of intimate contacts between India and foreign countries.

Jainism

Life of Mahavira

. Born in 540 BC at Kundagrama near Vaisali.

. Siddhartha was his father: Trisala his mother, Yasoda his wife and Jameli was the daughter.

. Attained Kaivalya at Jrimbhikagrama in eastern India at the age of 42.

. Died at the age of 72 in 468 BC at Pavapuri near Rajagriha.

. He was called Jina or Jitendriya, Nirgrantha and Mahavira.

Way to Nirvana

 (Three Ratnas)

. Right faith (Samyak vishwas)

. Right knowledge (Samyak jnan

. Right conduct (Samyak karma)

The Principles of Jainism as Preached by Mahavira

. Rejected the authority of the Vedas and the Vedic rituals.

. Did not believe in the existence of God.

. Believed in karma and the transmigration of soul.

. Laid great emphasis on equality.

FiveMain Teachings

(i) Non-injury (ahimsa)

(ii) Non-lying (saryai)

(iii) Non-stealing (asateya)

(iv) Non-possession (aparigraha)

(v) Observe continence (Bralmmcharya).

(The first four principles are of Parsavanath and the fifth Bramacharya was included by Mahavira).

Sacred Literature

The sacred literature of the Svetambaras is written in a form of Prakrit called Ardhamagadhi, and may be classified as follows:

(a)The twelve Angas

(b) The twelve Upangas

(c) The ten Parikarnas

(d) The six Chhedasutras

(e) The four Mulasutras.

Jaina Philosophy

. Syadvada: All our judgements are necessarily relative, conditional and limited. According ‘ to Syadvada (the theory of may be) seven modes of predication (saptabhangi) are possible. Absolute affirmation and absolute negation both are wrong. All judgements are conditional.

. Anekantavada: The Jaina metaphysics is a realistic and relativistic pluralism. It is called Anekantavada or the doctrine of the ‘manyness of reality’. Matter (Pudgala) and Spirit (Jiva) are regarded as separate and independent realities.

Spread of Jainism

Jainism received patronage from the kings of the time, including Chandragupta Maurya. In the south, royal dynasties such as the Gangas, Kadambas. Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas patronized Jainism. In.Gujarat, patronage came from wealthy merchants. The concrete expression of Jainism’s religious zeal is seen all over the country in works of art and architecture.

The 57-foot high statue of Gomateshvara at Sravanabelagola in Mysore, erected in 983 or 984 AD is a marvel of its kind. The temples at Mount Abu and those at Palithana in Gujarat and Moodabidri and Karkala in the south make a rich contribution to the Indian heritage.

Jaina Councils

By the end of fourth century BC, there was a serious famine in the Ganges valley leading to a great exodus of many Jaina monks to the Deccan and South India (Sravana Belgola) along with Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya. They returned to the Gangetic valley after 12 years. The leader of the group, which stayed back at Magadha was Sthulabahu. The changes that took place in the code of conduct of the followers of Sthulabahu led to the division of the Jainas into Digambaras (sky-clad or naked) and Svetambaras (white-clad).

. First Council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of the third century BC and resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvas.

. Second Council was held at Valabhi in the 5th century AD under the leadership of Devaradhi Kshamasramana and resulted in final compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.

Invasion of Alexander

Alexander crossed the Indus in 326 BC. After defeating the fierce tribes of the north west, he encountered two powerful kings,Ambhi and Porus. Ambhi. the king of Taxila, sent a mission to Alexander. offering to help him. if his own kingdom was spared.Porus, however, decided tooppose the Macedonian and the battle of Hydaspes (Ravi) was fought on the banks of the river Jhelum.Greek sources mention that Porus was defeated but was restored to his dominion as a vassal of Alexander. Alexander wanted to continue his advance but his soldiers mutinied and refused to go beyond river Hyphasis (Beas) and he had to retreat. Alexander died in Babylonia in 323 BC. After his death, most of the Macedonians returned home by 31b BC. Though Alexander’s stay in India was brief; it was an important influence. By curbing the fierce tribes who inhabited the hills and passes of North-west India, he paved the way for the rise of a united empire under the Mauryas. Alexander’s campaign opened up and reinforced a number of trade routes between North-Western India. via Afghanistan and Iran to Asia Minor and to the ports along the eastern Mediterranean.